Curly Brunette Girl Shows Off Her Navel Piercing And Tattoos On The Red Antique Chair In The Old Castle Room With A Balcony Terrace

• Antecedents
Historian Charles Coulson states that the accumulation of wealth and resources, such as food, led to the need for defensive structures. The earliest fortifications originated in the Fertile Crescent, the Indus Valley, Egypt, and China where settlements were protected by large walls. Northern Europe was slower than the East to develop defensive structures and it was not until the Bronze Age that hill forts were developed, which then proliferated across Europe in the Iron Age. These structures differed from their eastern counterparts in that they used earthworks rather than stone as a building material. Many earthworks survive today, along with evidence of palisades to accompany the ditches. In Europe, oppida emerged in the 2nd century BC; these were densely inhabited fortified settlements, such as the oppidum of Manching, and developed from hill forts. The Romans encountered fortified settlements such as hill forts and oppida when expanding their territory into northern Europe. Although primitive, they were often effective, and were only overcome by the extensive use of siege engines and other siege warfare techniques, such as at the Battle of Alesia. The Romans' own fortifications (castra) varied from simple temporary earthworks thrown up by armies on the move, to elaborate permanent stone constructions, notably the milecastles of Hadrian's Wall. Roman forts were generally rectangular with rounded corners – a "playing-card shape".
• Origins and early castles
Castles had their origins in the 9th and 10th centuries. This period saw the emergence of a social and military elite in the Carolingian Empire that was based upon mounted warfare. Fighting on horseback was a costly and time-consuming endeavour, requiring specialised equipment and trained horses. For their efforts, knights were granted land by the lords for whom they fought. The link between knight and lord was the basis of feudalism, and could go higher up the social scale with loyalties between lords, dukes, princes, and kings. When the Carolingian Empire collapsed in the 9th and 10th centuries, so did effective centralised administration, and it fell to the landed elite to take control. This led to the privatisation of government, and local lords assumed responsibility for the local economy and justice. Although castles were private buildings, lordship was a public office and the holder had a responsibility to protect his peasants. There is a traditional view that feudalism led to the break-down of society that contributed to the downfall of the Carolingian Empire. However, modern academic opinion is that feudalism was a successor to previous government rather than a rival. The building of a castle sometimes required the permission of the king or other high authority. The King of West Francia Charles the Bald prohibited the construction of castella without his permission and ordered them all to be destroyed in 864. This is perhaps the earliest reference to castles being built without permission, breaking the feudal agreement between lord and vassal. However, military historian Allen Brown points out that the wording may be misleading as at the time terms such as castellum and castrum were used to describe any fortification. There are very few castles dated with certainty from the mid-9th century. Converted into a donjon around 950, Châteaux Doué-la-Fontaine in France is the oldest standing castle in Europe. The Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century introduced a style of fortification developed in North Africa reliant on tapial, pebbles in cement, where timber was in short supply. From an early stage, they used castles to secure their conquests; a particularly good example of early castle built by Muslims in Spain.